The regular Central Manchester monthly meeting was replaced by
a celebratory day at the Manchester Conference Centre to mark Darwin’s birthday on 12 February. The event started at 1pm and was attended by 90 visitors. There were a range of exhibits from Population Matters, RSPB, Amnesty International, thINK the book, Friends of the Earth, Barton Theatre Company and Peace Mala from a local primary school. At 3.00pm the Greater Manchester Humanist Choir sung 'Seikilos Epitaph' and 'Darwin's Revolution' both arranged by former Musical Director Karl Kramer. This was followed by a talk by Professor Matthew Cobb from the Life Sciences Department at the University of Manchester on "The Brave New World of CRISPR Gene Editing".
Matthew introduced the topic by saying that he does not think that governments and institutions understand the importance and implications of recent developments in gene editing technology and the CRISPR technique which enables the precise editing of genes in virtually any organism, including humans. CRISPR stands for ‘clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats’ which are segments of DNA containing short, repetitive base sequences, that are the same in both directions. Each repetition is followed by short segments of spacer DNA from previous exposures to foreign DNA (e.g., a virus or plasmid). The cell's genome can be cut at a desired location, allowing existing genes to be removed and/or new ones added to effect improvements in that DNA.
Matthew explained that the ability to alter genetic material of organisms was developed in the 1970s but involved molecular tinkering over long periods. With the development of the CRISPR technique in 2013, modifications that took 18 months are now being done in 6 weeks. Two sources claim to have devised it: Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna from Berkeley, and George Church and Feng Zhang from Boston Broad Institute. CRISPR genome editing has many applications in the areas of human gene therapy, somatic therapy, agriculture, and vector control.
The application to human gene therapy enables changes in human genes that alter the genetic make-up of the next generation. There is a general reluctance to allow this on ethical grounds: CRISPR gene therapy is not legal in the UK, Australia or Canada. In the USA the technique cannot be applied using federal money, but is permitted using private funds.
CRISPR techniques can be applied in the treatment of illnesses without altering the genetic make up of the next generation by editing the body’s somatic cells. This type of intervention is therefore not subject to the same ethical concerns as genetic manipulation of human embryos. CRISPR therapies for blood based diseases, leukaemia, HIV and sickle cell anaemia may soon be trialled and the technique shows great promise as a treatment for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.
CRISPR is also being used in agricultural research exploring its application to boosting crop resistance to pests thereby reducing the toll of livestock disease.
As to vector control, CRISPR could be used to introduce new genetic material into organisms that transmit disease, such as the malaria carrying mosquito, that both makes females sterile and accelerates its spread throughout the whole population, so as to effectively eliminate that population in a few generations.
Work is currently being undertaken at Imperial College London on this. The scientific community is proceeding cautiously in this area given the potential impact on ecosystems.
Matthew concluded his presentation by talking about the ethics of using CRISPR. He posed the question of whether it is ethical to limit its use and thus its potential in fighting disease, illness and poverty. He was clear that its further application should be properly regulated.
In the question and answer session, when asked if CRISPR could assist with curing dementia or cancer Matthew responded that the application of CRISPR to combat a disease will depend on whether the disease or condition has an identifiable genetic sequence that can be easily disabled. Dementia and cancer do not have identifiable genetic sequences.
When asked if CRISPR could be used to regrow organs, Matthew answered that this was possible in theory by using stem cells that can be grown into any organ.
Matthew thought the application of the CRISPR system will need a political system to buy-in to it and to enforce it and that the short-termism associated with most political systems makes this problematic.
Matthew recommended the following sources on CRISPR: Ted Talks on CRISPR on YouTube, “CRISPR Democracy: Gene Editing and the Need for Inclusive Deliberation” in Issues in Science and Technology, Volume XXXII Issue 1 Fall 2015, “CRISPR-Cas9 ("Mr. Sandman" Parody) A Capella Science” on YouTube, “Life’s Greatest Secret” by Matthew Cobb.
The regular February Manchester meeting was was replaced with a celebratory evening at the Manchester Conference Centre to mark Darwin’s birthday on 12th February. The Darwin Day Celebration spanned the evening and was attended by 142 visitors including a number of Muslim families. There were a range of exhibits from Water Aid, Amnesty International, Population Matters, Hominid Evolution, Natural V’s Supernatural, digitart, LGBT and several Manchester schools displayed projects on evolution and Charles Darwin available throughout the evening . At 7.30pm children from Abraham Moss and Alma Park Primary Schools provided individual presentations on Darwin’s work and this was followed by a group song on evolution to the tune of “London Bridge is Falling Down”. The children were extremely enthusiastic in their delivery and their teacher Paula Hayes has to be commended for the smooth direction of the acts.
Dr Susanne Shultz then presented an outline of contemporary research and thinking on evolutionary biology and on the studies that she directs at the University of Manchester in light of the wider question of whether religious societies are more co-operative.
Susanne touched upon a number of strands of research. She talked about her own research into the factors that make primate societies distinctive and why humans have been able to develop large complex societies. There has been a positive correlation over evolutionary time between brain size and the level of societal co-operation and thus group living. Human cognition allows for the appreciation of art, and enables us to dance, to write, to make music, to communicate and to cooperate. Susanne explored whether religion was a by product of human cognitive advancement in that it meets both individual and group level needs. On an individual basis people get a sense of belonging and can be provided for materially through the religious system which provides security. In addition, it has been shown that membership has health benefits and communal activities activate positive hormonal changes in the form of endorphins. The group benefits relate to bonding and cooperation and provide a mechanism for punishing cheats. Susanne highlighted that there are always costs and benefits associated with membership of such groups. The costs can be associated with a particular dress code, punishments or abstinences and these can also signal membership. People are prepared to pay this price for membership and belonging and for rules to exclude dishonest members. Susanne touched upon similar evolutionary traits in the animal world, where some animals develop highly distinctive or costly characteristics to be part of an exclusive group, e.g. the peacock’s distinctive plumage. Sosis (2002) has examined communal societies and how long these societies lasted.
Susanne focused on whether religious groups were more cooperative than non-religious groups as analysed by the findings of the World Social Values Survey. This survey examined how religious and non-religious groups viewed anti-social behaviour, helping others, and volunteering and how they viewed outside groups. The survey found that religious groups were more cooperative but were less open to people from groups other than their own.
Suzanne pointed out that it has been empirically accepted that religious societies are more cooperative. However a number of recent studies are serving to counter this. For example, Decetey (2015) found that non-religious children were kinder than religious children. Suzanne also referred to her own work in this area which argues that primates have inherent characteristics of cooperation that we have evolved these tendencies and that religion is not the only method by which groups can cooperate. She suggested a number of other ways of providing the positive benefits of religious membership. The positive feelings associated with religious rituals are also found in other ritual activities such as football audience participation. In addition, the individual benefits relating to security associated with religious membership can be met by modern day welfare state systems: religious membership levels have fallen in western societies with their introduction.
For Darwin Day on February 12th we were fortunate enough to have a talk by Professor Steve Jones - Professor of genetics, science writer and broadcaster, and a Patron (formerly Distinguished Supporter) of the British Humanist Association.
International Darwin Day marks the birth of British scientist Charles Darwin. It celebrates the contribution of Charles Darwin and the wider scientific community to human understanding and development. Co-organiser of the event, David Milne, explained: “International Darwin Day seeks to encourage us all to reflect on the principles of intellectual bravery, scientific thinking and hunger for truth demonstrated by Charles Darwin”.
Summary of Steve’s presentation: Darwin’s ‘Origin of Species’ is the real beginning of biology. Evolution equals genetics plus time; it is ‘descent with modification’. Natural selection is design without a designer. In fact ‘evolution makes me feel more important not less’.
We can observe evolution before our eyes in the development of the HIV/Aids virus. It spread rapidly from the early 1980s to infect 33 million today. Infection rates in some African countries such as Botswana reached 30/40% at one point. It is now thought the virus started in the 1910s/1920s when cities were developing in Africa. However, we would have been unaware of what it was until, with the advent of cheap air travel, it spread to American and European cities– leading to research and identification of the virus. The virus would have come from chimpanzees that, in fighting with other animals, spread it to bush animals. Eating bush meat would then have infected the human population. The origin is tracked to an area of Cameroon.
Humans split from chimpanzees about 7 million years ago, but were susceptible to viruses carried by them through being of the same genus. Humans have lost many of the genes that in chimpanzees produce big teeth, big muscles and thick hair. We cannot now survive without cooking food – if we ate only raw food we would eventually starve to death.
Humans are very similar genetically all over the world, whereas the DNA differences between chimpanzee sub-groups, which all live in Central or West Africa, are much more marked. However, humans adapted mentally by evolving large brains (more than half of a new baby’s metabolism is dedicated to the brain).
Language: as well as passing on DNA, humans pass on culture and learning through language. Other animals do not do this. Even chimpanzees do not teach their young – though the young may learn through imitating the adults. Our modern languages probably originated 60,000 years ago. Evolution in our DNA is not enough to explain the development of humans and all the differences between them. Humans uniquely developed large brains, languages, and the ability to cooperate which sets us apart from other life forms. Thus man is NOT just another animal.
There followed a lively Q & A session with Steve. Some of the topics touched on were: The recent mitochondrial debate; the fact that, though animals do display altruism, humans are the only species with a sense of self; we don’t know if our species killed off the other types of humans; we don’t need to evolve as much today as we have created environments that are more suited to our species (e.g. we don’t have to fight- off sabre toothed tigers); Dawkins vs EO Wilson. The origin of life is problematic, a unique event, not the same as evolution. It either happened once or many times. In 1400 there were probably about as many people with white skins as there were people with black skins. By 1900 there were twice as many whites as blacks. In 2015 there are about the same number again. By 2065 there will be twice as many blacks as whites. All people are getting taller (e.g. the Dutch have grown three inches since WW2); we don’t yet understand why this is.
Richard Sandover
